Empire Building

Empire Building: The British in India

British East India Company: The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) left Britain the major power in India. Princes who ruled portions not governed directly by Britain usually signed treaties placing their states under British protection.

         With some restrictions, the East India Company ruled India until 1857. It exported Indian cotton, silk, and sugar. Within India, it built telegraph, railroad, and irrigation systems and set up a postal service and school system. It supervised the Sepoy units (Indian soldiers) defending India. British missionaries arrived to convert Hindus and Muslims.

Status of Indians: The East India Company denied Indian equal rights and opportunities. Factory workers and servants earned low wages. Farmers get very little for their produce. Indians could not hold important government positions. Moreover, schools taught English and Western ideas, while ignoring Indian history and advanced culture. After the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, the British government took over the administration of India.

British Rule: The British government appointed a viceroy (governor) to head the Indian government. An Indian Civil Service (ICS) was created. Although the ICS employed Indians and Anglo-Indians in clerical and other positions, higher level administrators were British.

European Imperialist Rule in India

DIRECTIONS: Read the information below, then decide whether this was a positive or negative effect of imperialism on India.

·      Creation of a Court System based on English laws

·      English was made the official language of India

·      British education was set, giving many the opportunity to be educated

·      British created a civil service exam (needed to pass this in order to get a government job)

·      Western medicine introduced, hospitals were built

·      Ancient Indian culture and practices were banned

·      British law outlawed the Caste System

·      Few Indians held government positions

·      British education stressed Western culture, history, and attitude

·      British encouraged production of cash crops, which led to a decrease in food crops

The Spanish American War

The Spanish American War

In the mid-1890s, there were serious social, economic, and political problems on the neighboring island of Cuba. Cuban rebels were attempting to free Cuba from Spanish control which dated back to the late 1400s. As Cuba lies only ninety miles from the tip of Florida, the United States has always taken a strong interest in the events happening there. At that time, many Americans sympathized with the efforts of the Cubans. Also, many had invested heavily in the Cuban sugar industry.

         In 1896, the Spanish government attempted to put an end to the rebel cause. General Valeriano Weyler was sent to crush the rebellion. Weyler destroyed sugar plantations and built prison camps for Cubans in rebel-held areas. News of mistreatment of the Cubans came to America. Stories were told of 100,000 captured Cubans starving to death in the Spanish camps. The atrocities were given much coverage in the American press, and in some cases reports were grossly exaggerated.

         Although many Americans were prepared to support the Cubans in their move for independence, President McKinley took a cautious stance. He had hoped the situation would be resolved in the near future, but a series of events made a simple answer impossible. One highly publicized event was the publishing of a letter that was intercepted en route to a post office in Havana, Cuba. Written by a Spanish diplomat stationed in Washington, the letter insulted McKinley and referred to him as a “weakling” and a “crowd pleaser.” The derogatory tone of the letter angered many Americans. More serious in nature, a second event involved the deaths of American sailors. On the night of February 15, 1898, an explosion ripped through the hull of the Maine, an American vessel docked in the Havana Harbor. The ship had been sent to protect Americans on the island. No one was ever to know for sure who or what had caused the explosion in which more than 250 Americans lost their lives. The tragedy stirred the American spirit, and many blamed the Spaniards. Public pressure finally forced McKinley to take action. On April 11, the President went before Congress to request a declaration of war against Spain. Two weeks later, on April 25, the United States declared war against the old colonial power. With the rallying cry, “Remember the Maine,” many Americans eagerly joined the fight.

         Even before the official declaration of war against Spain, the American fleet in the Pacific was steaming off to the Philippines, which had been a part of the Spanish empire for over 300 years. In the event that war was declared against Spain, they were to capture the enemy squadron in Manila, the Philippine capital. On May 1, 1898 just days after the official declaration of war, Commodore George Dewey and six ships arrived in Manila Bay to begin bombardment of the fleet. In a matter of hours, the United States navy had destroyed the Spanish fleet and blockaded the harbor. American troops entered the Philippine islands the day after an armistice, or agreement to stop fighting, was signed.

         Meanwhile, in Cuba, the Spanish fleet in the Atlantic was docked in Santiago Harbor. By the end of May, United States warships had arrived to blockade the Cuban harbor. The next month, on June 22, U.S. troops landed in Cuba just east of Santiago. The Americans found the going rough in the hills of Cuba, for the Spanish had strongly fortified positions. Casualties were high. Among the troops which drew heavy fire was a volunteer unit called the “Rough Riders.” It was led by Theodore Roosevelt, who had resigned his office as Assistant Secretary of the Navy to join the cause. The Rough Riders were actually a cavalry unit, but this time they fought only on foot, for their horses never made it to the island.

         Two days after Roosevelt’s men succeeded in taking Kettle Hill on the ridge overlooking Santiago, the most decisive battle of the war took place. In the battle of San Juan Hill, the Americans emerged victorious, and Roosevelt became an instant hero.

          On July 3, 1898, the Spanish attempted to move their fleet out of Santiago Harbor. The Americans opened fire, destroying all the escaping ships. On July 17, the Spanish in Santiago surrendered. With no options remaining, the Spanish government in Cuba also surrendered. Shortly after this victory, the U.S. occupied Puerto Rico, an island southeast of Cuba. Along with Cuba, the Philippines, and the island of Guam, Puerto Rico came under the protection of the United States. The war with Spain was over. With the ratification of the Treaty of Paris early in 1899, American became an imperialist country with an empire stretching from the Caribbean to the distant Pacific.

         In the election of 1900, William Jennings Bryan again represented the Democrats. McKinley proved a tough opponent, running on a platform of expanded territories and continued prosperity under a Republican Administration. Aiding the ticket was the nomination for Vice-President of Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, hero of San Juan Hill. Winning easily, the Republicans remained in the White House.

Indian Nationalist Movement

An Indian Nationalist Movement

         The first Indian nationalists were upper class and English-educated. Many of them were from urban areas, such as Mumbai (then called Bombay), Chenai (Madras), and Calcutta. Some were trained in British law and were members of the civil service.

         At first, many preferred reform to revolution, but the slow pace of reform convinced many Indian nationalists that relying on British goodwill was futile. In 1885, a small group of Indians met in Bombay to form the Indian National Congress (INC). the INC did not demand immediate independence but did call for a share in the governing process.

         The INC had difficulties because of religious differences. The goal of the INC was to seek independence for all Indians, regardless of class or religious background. However, many of its leaders were Hindu and reflected Hindu concerns. Eventually, Muslims began to call for the creation of a separate Muslim League to represent the interests of the millions of Muslims in Indian society.

         In 1915, the return of a young Hindu from South Africa brought new life to India’s struggle for independence. Mohandas Gandhi was born in 1869 in Gujarat, in western India. He studied in London and became a lawyer. In 1893, he went to South Africa to work in a law firm serving Indian workers there. He soon became aware of the racial exploitation of Indians living in South Africa.

         On his return home to India, Gandhi became active in the independence movement. Using his experience in South Africa, he set up a movement based on non-violent resistance. Its aim was to force the British to improve the lot of the poor and grant independence to India. In Gandhi’s philosophy, resisting unjust laws was the moral path, but if resistance became violent, Gandhi would withdraw support. Gandhi’s reputation for morality was so high that he was called Mahatma, or “great soul.” Ultimately, his movement would lead to Indian independence.

African Americans in the Progressive Era

Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois

The two most prominent African American leaders during the Progressive Era were Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois.

Washington founded the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, an African American teachers’ college that later became Tuskegee University. An educator and author, Washington advocated for African Americans while promising white America that he would not demand the black vote or insist upon integration. He received endorsements from middle- and upper-class whites, including many Progressive government and industrial leaders, who approved of his conciliatory attitude and did not see him as a threat. Most middle-class blacks also strongly supported his ideas. Washington formed many alliances with political, philanthropic, and education leaders and promoted a strong agenda for African American education. He believed that establishing
alliances with and gaining the support of whites made for the best path toward increased opportunities for African Americans, particularly as they gained
educational opportunities.

Some African Americans, including members of the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People), criticized Washington in his later years for not taking a strong public stand against segregation and discrimination. Civil rights activist and author W.E.B. Du Bois participated in this criticism and spoke out forcefully in favor of changing the political climate and laws that led to discrimination. Du Bois wrote and published numerous articles and published the works of other African American authors, including the poet Langston Hughes. Like Washington, Du Bois strongly supported education for African Americans, but he did not believe that they should try to “fit in” to white culture. Rather, he challenged African Americans to question and stand up against the dominant views and policies that most whites—including Progressive activists—supported.

*How did Washington and Du Bois differ in philosophy as to how blacks could better their lives and get ahead? Whose approach would most Progressives have likely preferred? Why?

The Taft Administration

The Taft Administration

Taft Becomes President

William Howard Taft had been Theodore Roosevelt’s most trusted lieutenant. He had served as a judge, a governor of the Philippines and as Roosevelt’s secretary of war. In fact, he seemed an acceptable successor to almost everyone. Thanks to Roosevelt’s efforts, Taft easily received his party’s nomination for the 1908 election. The Democratic candidate, twice-defeated William Jennings Bryan, lost once more.

Taft’s Approach to Government “My dear Theodore,” Taft wrote to his old friend a couple of weeks after assuming the office. “When I am addressed as ‘Mr. President,’ I turn to see whether you are at my elbow.” The comment was telling.

Roosevelt and Taft were very different people. Roosevelt was a dynamic person who loved the spotlight and the rough-and-tumble world of politics. He had grand ideas and schemes but left the details of administering them to others. Taft was the opposite in many ways. He was skillful administrator and judge. He disliked political maneuvering and preferred to avoid conflict with others. Unlike Roosevelt, who acted quickly and decisively on issues, Taft responded slowly, approaching problems from a legalistic point of view. “I don’t like politics,” he wrote, “I don’t like the limelight.” Although committed to many progressive ideas, Taft’s personality and approach to politics quickly brought him into conflict with progressives.

The Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act Like many progressives, Taft believed high tariffs limited competition, hurt consumers, and protected trusts. Roosevelt had warned him to stay away from tariff reform because it would divide the Republican Party. Taft, however, went ahead and called Congress into special session to lower tariff rates.

To pass a new tariff, Taft needed the help of the Speaker of the House Joseph G. Cannon. As Speaker, Cannon appointed all committees and decided which bills they handled. By exercising almost total control over debate. Cannon could push some bills through without discussion and see that others never came to vote. Progressives wanted to unseat Cannon because he often blocked their legislation.

Taft disagreed with the effort to unseat Cannon. He pressured progressive Republicans into stopping their campaign against Cannon. In exchange, Cannon quickly pushed the tariff bill through the House of Representatives. Taft’s compromise angered many progressives. The following year, they defied the president by joining with House Democrats and removing Cannon from power.

Taft further alienated progressives when the tariff bill went to the Senate. The powerful head of the Senate Finance Committee, Republican Nelson Aldrich from Rhode Island, wanted to protect high tariffs, as did many other conservative senators. The result was the Payne-Aldrich Tariff, which cut tariffs hardly at all and actually raised them one some goods. After discussions with Aldrich and other senators, however, Taft decided to accept the new tariff. Progressives felt betrayed and outraged by Taft’s decision: “I knew the fire had gone out of [the Progressive movement],” recalled chief forester Gifford Pinchot after Roosevelt left office. “Washington was a dead town. Its leader was gone and in his place [was] a man whose fundamental desire was to keep out of trouble.”

The Ballinger-Pinchot Controversy With Taft’s standing among Republican progressives deteriorating, a sensational controversy broke in 1909 helping destroy Taft’s popularity with reformers for good. Many progressives had been unhappy when Taft replaced Roosevelt’s secretary of the interior, James R. Garfield, and aggressive conservationist, with Richard A. Ballinger grew when he tried to make nearly a million acres of public forests and mineral reserves available for private development.

During this mounting concern, Gifford Pinchot charged the new secretary with having once plotted to turn over valuable public lands in Alaska to a private syndicate, or business group, for personal profit. Pinchot took the charges to the president. Taft’s attorney general found the charges were groundless.

Still not satisfied, Pinchot leaked the story to the press and asked Congress to investigate. Taft fired Pinchot for insubordination, or disobedience. The congressional committee appointed to study the controversy cleared Ballinger.

By signing the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act, supporting Ballinger against Pinchot, and backing Cannon, Taft gave the impression that he had “sold the Square Deal down the river.” Popular indignation was so great that the congressional elections of 1910 resulted in a sweeping Democratic victory, with Democrats taking the majority in the House and Democrats and Progressive Republicans grabbing control of the Senate from the conservatives.

Taft’s Progressive Reforms

Despite his political problems, Taft also had several successes. Although Roosevelt was nicknamed the “trustbuster,” Taft was a stronger supporter of competition and actually brought twice as many antitrust cases in four years as his predecessor had in seven.

In other areas, too, Taft established the Children’s Bureau, a federal agency similar to Roosevelt’s Bureau of Corporations. The Children’s Bureau investigated and publicized problems with child labor. Taft also supported the Mann-Elkins Act of 1910, which increased the regulatory powers of the ICC.

The Ballinger-Pinchot controversy aside, Taft was also a dedicated conservationist. His contributions in this area actually equaled or surpassed those of Roosevelt. Taft set up the Bureau of Mines to monitor the activities of mining companies, expanded the national forests, and protected waterpower sites from private developments.

Although disturbed by stories of Taft’s “betrayal” of progressivism, Roosevelt at first refused to criticize the president. Then in October 1911, Taft announced an antitrust lawsuit against the U.S. Steel, claiming that the company’s decision to buy the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company in 1907 had violated the Sherman Antitrust Act.

The lawsuit was the final straw for Roosevelt. As president, he had approved U.S. Steel’s plan to buy the company. Roosevelt believed Taft’s focus on breaking up trusts was destroying the carefully crafted system of cooperation and regulation that Roosevelt had established. In November 1911, Roosevelt publicly criticized Taft’s decision. Roosevelt argued that the best way to deal with the trusts was to allow them to exist while at the same time increasing government’s ability to regulate them.

Having broken with Taft, it was only a matter time before progressives convinced Roosevelt to reenter politics. In late February 1912, Roosevelt announced that he would attempt to replace Taft as the 1912 Republican nominee for President.

The American Vision

Glencoe