The Policies of Prosperity

The Policies of Prosperity

Trade and Arms Control

         Before World War I the United States had owed billions of dollars more to foreign investors than foreigners owed to Americans. By the end of the war…

The Dawes Plan

The United States’ former wartime allies had difficulty making the payments on their immense war debts. They claimed that high American tariffs had closed the American market to their products and hampered their economic recovery. If they could not sell their products in the United States, they could not acquire the money they needed to pay off their war debts. They also argued that the United States should be willing to bear more of the financial burden because it had suffered far fewer wartime casualties than its allies.

         The United States government took the stance that American taxpayers should not be asked to assume the debts of others. American officials argued further that America’s allies had gained new territory as a result of the victory over Germany, while United States had gained nothing. These countries also were receiving reparations—huge cash payments Germany was required to make as punishment for starting the war and causing so much destruction. These payments, however, were completely crippling the German economy.

         It was vital for the United States that European economies be healthy so that the Europeans could buy American exports and repay their war debt. Thus, in 1924, Charles G. Dawes, an American banker and diplomat, negotiated an agreement with France, Britain, and Germany by which American banks would make loans to the Germans that would enable them to meet their reparations payments. At the same time, Britain and France would accept less in reparations and pay more on their war debts.

         Although well intended, the Dawes Plan did little to ease Europe’s economic problems. Britain, France, and Germany went through the motions of paying what they owed while in fact going deeper into debt to American banks and corporations.

1920s Slang Expressions

1920s Slang Expressions

All wet—wrong, mistaken

Applesauce—an expletive, same as horsefeathers

Baloney—nonsense

Banana oil—nonsense, insincere flattery

Bank’s closed—no kissing or making out

Bee’s knees—an excellent person or thing

Beeswax—business

Belly laugh—a loud, deep laugh

Blind date—a date between two people who do not know each other, usually arranged by a mutual friend.

Big Cheese—an important person

Bull session—an informal group discussion

Bump off—murder

Cake-eater—a ladies’ man

Carry a Torch—to have a crush on someone

Cash- a kiss

Cash or check?—do you kiss now or later?

Cat’s meow—something, admirable or wonderful

Cheaters—eyeglasses

Check—kiss me later

Copacetic—first-rate, excellent

Darb—an excellent person or thing

Dogs—human feet

Drugstore cowboy—a fashionable man who spends his time in public places trying to pick up women

Ducky—very good

Dumb dora—an unintelligent female

Fall guy—someone who takes the blame for the crimes of others, a scapegoat

Flapper—a fashionable young woman of the 1920s, typically with short, bobbed hair, a short skirt, and stockings rolled to her knees.

Flat tire—boring person

Frame—to make someone appear guilty of a crime by giving false evidence or testimony

Gam—a woman’s leg

Gatecrasher—an uninvited guest, a person who attends an event without paying admission

Giggle water—an alcoholic drink

Gold digger—a woman who seduces a man for money of gifts

Goofy—silly

Hair of the dog—a shot of alcohol

Hard-boiled—tough, unfeeling

Heebie-jeebies—nervous jitters

Hep—wise

High-hat—to coldly ignore, to snub

Hooch—illegal, usually low-quality liquor

Hoofer—chorus girl, professional dancer

Horsefeathers—nonsense

Hotsy-totsy—pleasing

Jake—okay, as in “everything’s jake”

Jalopy—old, run-down car

Keen—appealing, attractive

Kiddo—familiar form of address, meaning “pal”

Kisser—the mouth

Line—insincere talk or flattery

Lounge lizard—a pleasure-seeking man who hangs out in nightclubs where rich people gather

Lousy—terrible

Main drag—a city or town’s main street

Neck—to kiss and touch intimately

Nobody’s home—describes someone who is dumb

Ossified—drunk

Pet—to kiss and touch intimately

Pinch—to arrest

Pushover—someone easy to overcome or take advantage of, something easily done

Raspberry—a loud noise to indicate contempt

Ritzy—elegant

Scram—to leave in a hurry

Sex appeal—physical attractiveness

Sheba—a young woman with sex appeal

Sheik—a man with sex appeal

Smeller—nose

Speak-easy—a bar or club that sells illegal liquor

Spiffy—elegant, fashionable

Spifficated—drunk

Struggle-buggy—a car, a place in which boys try to seduce girls

Stuck on—infatuated with, have a crush on

Swanky—elegant

Swell—excellent, great

Torpedo—a hired gunman

Upchuck—vomit

Wet blanket—a solemn person, killjoy

Whoopee—noisy, unrestrained fun

Battle of World War I

Battles of World War I

The Conflict Grinds to a Halt Early on, Germany’s Schlieffen Plan worked brilliantly. By the end of August, the Germans had overrun Belgium and swept into France. By September 3, German units were on the edge of Paris. A major German victory appeared just days away. The French military then came into possession of intelligence that told them the exact direction the Germany army was about to take.

         On September 5, the Allies attacked the Germans northeast of Paris, in the valley of the Marne River. Every available soldier was hurled into the struggle. When reinforcements were needed, more than 600 taxicabs rushed soldiers from Paris to the front. After four days of fighting, the German generals gave the order to retreat. “It was an inspiring thought,” a British officer later wrote, “that the time had now come to chase the German.” By September 13, the Germans had been driven back nearly 60 miles.

         Although it was only the first major clash on the Western Front, the First Battle of the Marne was perhaps the single most important event of the war. The defeat of the Germans left the Schlieffen Plan in ruins. A quick victory in the west no longer seemed  possible. In the east, Russian forces had already invaded Germany. Germany was going to have to fight a long war on two fronts. Realizing this, the German high command sent thousands of troops from France to aid its forces in the east. Meanwhile, the war on the Western Front settled into a stalemate.

War in the Trenches By early 1915, opposing armies on the Western Front had dug miles of parallel trenches to protect themselves from enemy fire. This set the stage for what became known as trench warfare. In this type of warfare, soldiers fought each other from trenches. And armies traded huge losses for pitifully small land gains.

         Life in the trenches was pure misery. “The men slept in mud, washed in mud, ate mud, and dreamed mud,” wrote one soldier. The trenches swarmed with rats. Fresh food was nonexistent. Sleep was nearly impossible.

         The space between the opposing trenches won the grim name “no man’s land.” When the officers ordered an attack, their men went “over the top” of their trenches into this bombed-out landscape. There, they usually met murderous rounds of machine-gun fire. Staying put in the trench, however, did not ensure one’s safety. Artillery fire brought death right into the trenches. “Shells of all calibers kept raining on our sector,” wrote one French soldier. “The trenches disappeared, filled with earth…the air unbreathable. Our blinded, wounded, crawling, and shouting soldiers kept falling on top of us and died splashing us with blood. It was living hell.”

         The Western Front had become a “terrain of death.” It stretched nearly 500 miles from the North Sea to the Swiss border. A British officer described it in a letter:

Imagine a broad belt, ten miles or so in width, stretching from the Channel to the German frontier near Basle, which is positively littered with the bodies of men and scarified with their rude graves; in which farms, villages and cottages are shapeless heaps of blackened masonry; in which fields, roads and trees are pitted and torn and twisted by shells and disfigured by dead horses, cattle, sheep and goats, scattered in every attitude of repulsive distortion and dismemberment.

Valentine Fleming, quoted in The First World War

         Military strategists were at a loss. New tools of war—machine guns, poison gas, armored tanks, larger artillery—had not delivered the fast-moving war they had expected. All this new technology did was kill huge numbers of people more effectively.

         The slaughter reached a peak in 1916. In February, the Germans launched a massive attack against the French near Verdun. Each side lost more than 300,000 men.

         In July of 1916, the British army tried to relieve the pressure on the French, British forces attacked the Germans northwest of Verdun, in the valley of the Somme River. In the first day of battle alone, more than 20,000 British soldiers were killed. By the time the Battle of the Somme ended in November, each side had suffered over half of million casualties.

         What did the warring sides gain? Near Verdun, the Germans advanced about four miles. In the Somme valley, the British gained about five miles.

Even as the war on the Western Front claimed thousands of lives, both sides were sending millions more men to fight on the Eastern Front. This area was a stretch of battlefield along the German and Russian border. Here, Russians and Serbs battled Germans, Austrians, and Turks. The war in the east was a more mobile war than that in the west. Here too, however, slaughter and stalemate were common.

         At the very beginning of the war, Russian forces had launched an attack into both Austria and Germany. At the end of August 1914, Germany counterattacked near the town of Tannenberg. During the four-day battle that followed, the Germans crushed the invading Russian army and drove it into full retreat. Germany regained East Prussia and seized numerous guns and horses from the enemy. More than 30,000 Russian soldiers were killed.

         Russia fared somewhat better against the Austrians. Russian forces defeated the Austrians twice in September 1914, driving them deep into Austria. Not until December of that year did the Austrian army—with German assistance—manage to turn the tide. In a 17-day battle near Limanowa, Austria defeated the Russians and drove them eastward. Two weeks later, the Austrian army pushed the Russians out of Austria-Hungary.

Russia’s War Effort Weakens By 1916, Russia’s war effort was near collapse. Unlike the nations of Western Europe, Russia had yet to become industrialized. As a result, the Russian army was continually short on food, guns, ammunition, clothes, boots, and blankets. Moreover, the Allies were unable to ship supplies to Russia’s ports. In the north, a German naval fleet blocked the Baltic Sea. In the south, the Ottomans still controlled the straits leading from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea.

         The Russian army had only one asset—its numbers. Throughout the war the Russian army suffered enormous battlefield losses. More than 2 million Russian soldiers were killed, wounded, or captured in 1915 alone. And yet the army continually rebuilt it ranks from the country’s enormous population. For more than three years, the battered Russian army managed to tie up hundreds of thousands of German troops in the east. Thus, Germany could not hurl its full fighting force at the west.

         Germany and her allies, however, were concerned with more than just the Eastern or Western Fronts. As the war raged on, fighting spread beyond Europe to Africa, as well as to Southwest and Southeast Asia. In the years after it began, the massive European conflict indeed became a world war.

A Truly Global Conflict

Geographical widening of the war actually had begun soon after the conflict started. Japan entered the war on the Allies’ side. The Ottoman Turks and later Bulgaria allied themselves with Germany and the Central Powers. That widened the conflict further. By early 1915, the only major neutral power left besides the United States was Italy. And Italy joined the Allies in April. None of these alliances gave an advantage to either side. But they did give military leaders more war zones in which to try to secure victory.

Fighting Rages Beyond Europe As the war dragged on, the Allies desperately searched for a way to end the stalemate. A promising strategy seemed to be to attack a region in the Ottoman Empire known as the Dardanelles. This narrow sea strait was the gateway to the Ottoman capital, Constantinople. By securing the Dardanelles, the Allies believed that they could take Constantinople, defeat the Turks, and establish a supply line to Russia. They might even be able to mount an offensive into the Austrian heartland by way of the Danube River.

         The effort to take the Dardanelles strait began in February 1915. It was known as the Gallipoli campaign. British, Australian, New Zealand, and French troops made repeated assaults on the Gallipoli Peninsula on the western side of the strait. Turkish troops, some commanded by German officers, vigorously defended the region. By May, Gallipoli had turned into another bloody stalemate. Both sides dug trenches, from which they battled for the rest of the year. In December, the Allies gave up the campaign and began to evacuate. They had suffered about 250,000 casualties.

         Despite the Allies’ failure at Gallipoli, they remained determined to topple the Ottoman Empire. In Southwest Asia, the British helped Arab nationalists rise up against their Turkish rulers. Particularly devoted to the Arab cause was a British soldier named T.E. Lawrence. Better known as Lawrence of Arabia, he helped lead daring guerilla raids against the Turks. With the help of the Arabs, Allied armies took control of Baghdad, Jerusalem, and Damascus.

         In various parts of Asia and Africa, Germany’s colonial possessions came under assault. The Japanese quickly overran German outposts in China. They also captured Germany’s Pacific island colonies.

         In July 1918, the Allies and Germans clashed at the Second Battle of Marne. Leading the Allied attack were some 350 tanks that rumbled slowly forward, smashing through the German lines. With the arrival of 2 million more American troops, the Allied forces began to advance steadily toward Germany.

         Soon, the Central Powers began to crumble. First the Bulgarians and then the Ottoman Turks surrendered. In October, a revolution in Austria-Hungary brought that empire to an end. In Germany, soldiers mutinied, and the public turned on the Kaiser.

         On November 9, 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm II was forced to step down. Germany declared itself a republic. A representative of the new German government met with Marshal Foch. In a railway car in a forest near Paris, the two signed an armistice, or an agreement to stop fighting. On November 11, World War I came to an end.

         After four years of slaughter and destruction, the time had come to forge a peace settlement. Leaders of the victorious nations gathered outside Paris to work out the terms of peace. While these leaders had come with high hopes, the peace settlement they crafted left many feeling bitter and betrayed.